Ways in Which Religion Has Been Affected By Globalization Free Essay Example, 1250 words

According to the research findings, it is through the use of technology that the heart of the religion can be explained to those who do not understand it or have been brainwashed by the accounts that they heard from others who are as ignorant about the matter or those who are open-minded enough to accept the explanation. There are a number of new channels that have come out that have various scholars who talk about Islam and all that the religion is about e. g. Peace TV. Television sets are owned by practically everyone all over the world so the people who are the believers of Islam find out more about their religion whereas the others become more knowledgeable and attempt to understand the religion better. Similarly, there are many forums on the internet where a number of people can get together to discuss and debate on the religion. Of course, the videos of the television shows have been put up online so those who are unable to get the right channels can watch them online. There h ave been many books written on Islam which can be shipped from one place to its destination in almost no time at all or even be read in the form of eBooks. We will write a custom essay sample on Ways in Which Religion Has Been Affected By Globalization or any topic specifically for you Only $17.96 $11.86/page In countries like America and England, people usually wear tight jeans and short shirts in their daily life. Similar dressing sense is being adopted by the Muslims around the world which does not quite abide by what Islam instructs them to wear. Females, for example, should cover their hair do the hijab and clad their bodies in loose clothes so that their figure does not become prominent, they are asked to keep a modest appearance.

Organ Trafficking A Large Problem - 1446 Words

Illegal organ trafficking has become a large problem all over the world. The traffickers are commonly attacking the poor and promising them money but it never ends up being the correct amount. Commonly doctors and pharmaceutical companies overlook the illegal trade of the organs because they receiving money from the transplants. Organ trafficking takes place in three broad categories. The first one is organ traffickers will force or trick the individual into giving up an organ. Secondly the victim formally or informally agrees to sell the kidney and never receives the money for it or is promised a certain amount and receives a lot less. Lastly people are treated for a illness in which they do not know if their organs are being or not being removed (Trafficking for Organ Trade, 2014). The vulnerable groups of people that are normally attacked are migrant workers, homeless individuals, and illiterate people. Organ trafficking does not discriminate against any age. Organs that are commonly trafficked are livers and kidneys. Any organ will be traded as long as it can removed and used (Trafficking for Organ Trade, 2014). Trafficking is considered organized crime because it involves many individuals when it takes place. â€Å"The recruiter who identifies the vulnerable person, the transporter, the staff of the hospital/ clinic and other medical centres, the medical professionals, the middlemen and contractors, the buyers, the banks where organs are stored are all involved in theShow MoreRelatedEssay on Human Organ Trafficking1283 Words   |  6 PagesHuman Organ Trafficking There are many problems with global crimes. What holds these crimes together isn’t because people around the world are committing the same crimes, it’s because these criminals have created global organizations that have ties in all the corners of the world. These groups work just like normal business do, exporting and importing goods to gain profit. However, unlike normal businesses their goods are illegal such as drugs and often inhumane such as trafficking humans. EvenRead MoreThe Trade Of Human Organs For Profit1388 Words   |  6 PagesHuman Organs for Profit Throughout the world, people are beginning to live longer lives. From about 100 years ago, people’s lives have more than doubled, from an average of 34 years around the world, to an average of approximately 70 years today. Not only that, but the global population has gone from less than two billion to nearly seven billion people. While this may seemingly be a good thing, there are several problems attached to it. Due to poor diets, many people have to seek for organ donationsRead MoreCreating Stricter Policies That Charge The State For Hosting These Procedures Essay1405 Words   |  6 Pagespaper I observed the issues with the organ trafficking crisis and decided to brainstorm some aspect of the CPS process I came up with two alternatives. One is to establish a committee dedicated to education, enforcement and providing outreach for the affected would make a difference overtime. The use of IDEO’s creative process allows for an in depth look at the issue and a solution from different views of people. In States that have increase cases of organ trafficking lack education to its citizens. TheseRead MoreOrgan Trafficking Essay1551 Words   |  7 Pagestotal, Im worth about $300,000 on the organ market. The organ trade is one of the fastest growing and least enforced trafficking crimes throughout the globe today (Glazer 341). Sarah Glazer claims in Organ Trafficking that 5,000 to 10,000 of the 100,000 transplanted organs are obtained illegally each year (341). Although the laws passed and organizations founded have delayed the escalation of organ trafficking, the selling and distribution of compensated organs should remain illegal and suppressedRead MoreBlack Market Organ Trafficking : The Illegal Act Of Exchanging Human Organs Or Tissues At An Agreed Price Essay1599 Words   |  7 PagesBlack market organ trafficking Organ trafficking deals with the illegal act of exchanging human organs or tissues at an agreed price. This practice involves mafia networks that collect organs from dead or living persons. A majority of people involved in this illicit business are poverty stricken and so, they see it as a promise of a brighter future. While the World Health Organization (WHO) has defined strict rules, imposed ethical standards along with the absence of any monetary compensation, theRead MoreThe Growth Of The Global Commercial Sex Industry1151 Words   |  5 PagesFurthermore, one of the most infamous crimes in recent years recaptured our attention is human trafficking, which is known as, buying and selling people. Trafficking humans have existed since the beginning of civilization, but in recent years the scourge of trafficking, has exponentially increased due to globalization, the magnitude of poverty, organized crime, government corruption, and (as it relates to sex trafficking) the growth of th e global commercial sex industry. The government should regulate theRead MoreSlavery in the Past vs. Human Trafficking in the Modern World909 Words   |  4 PagesSlavery What are the differences and similarities between slavery in the past and human trafficking in the modern world? Over the last several years, the issue of human trafficking has been compared with the slave trade. This is because both are focused on taking someone against their will and forcing them to engage in demeaning activities. Yet, the practices of modern traffickers are different from slave traders. To fully understand the similarities and disparities requires contrasting them withRead MoreThe Evil of Human Trafficking996 Words   |  4 Pagesï » ¿Introduction Human Trafficking is one of the most heinous crimes that operate over transnational boundaries. The act of human trafficking is highlighted as a criminalized activity according to the article 5 of the Trafficking in Persons Protocol set out by United Nations Office of Drugs and Crime. While Human Trafficking is generally attributed to the Less Developed Countries. This is because the socio economic dynamics along with weaker law and order situation provide a strong environment forRead MoreThe Trafficking Of Human Organs1564 Words   |  7 PagesTrafficking Human Organs The trafficking of human organs is on the rise and black market operations are happening under everyone’s nose. Currently there are more than 120,000 people who are on the waiting list for a lifesaving organ. Among these people waiting for their transplant approximately twenty-five people will die each day waiting for their number to come up (Perry, 2016). According to the World Health Organization there is only about ten percent of organ transplants being met through theRead MoreIs Organ Sale Not Banned For Many Years?1105 Words   |  5 PagesImagine someone that you hold dearly about to die because of a terrible organ problem and that person needs an organ to be alive, you can’t donate your organs, what will you do? There are a lot of people throughout the world that at this moment are waiting for an organ to be donated to them, however not many people will do it because they are either scared that they one day need it or that they might suffer during the process. Organ sale has been banned for many years because of a lot of reasons that

Spread of Buddhism in China Free Essays

During the spread of Buddhism in china, three popular views were that the spreading of Buddhism should be stopped, society benefited from it, and it was the way of salvation (afterlife). One of the responses to the spread of Buddhism was that it should be stopped. Many officials believed that Buddhism was harmful to china because Buddhism was discordant with the already established Chinese traditions, culture, and aristocracy. We will write a custom essay sample on Spread of Buddhism in China or any similar topic only for you Order Now The leading scholar and official at the Tang imperial court, Han Yu, writes to his leader (document ) â€Å"Your servant begs leave to say that Buddhism is no more than a cult of the barbarian people spread to china†¦ The Buddha was a man of the barbarians who did not speak Chinese†¦ your servant is deeply ashamed and begs that this bone from the Buddha be given to the proper authorities to be cast into fire and water, that this evil be rooted out, and later generations spared this delusion. Han Yu was a Confucian scholar, so it is no surprise that he is opposed to Buddhism which clashes with Confucianism in many aspects including how Confucianism promotes one fulfilling his duties to his lord and country, where as Buddhism promotes detachment to avoid sorrow. The Tang Emperor Wu wrote (document 6) â€Å"Buddhism has transmitted its strange ways and has spread like a luxuriant vine until it has poisoned the customs of our nation†¦ Buddhism wears out the people’s strength, pilfers their wealth, causes people to abandon their lords and parents for the company of teachers, and severs man and wife with its monastic decrees†¦ Having thoroughly examined all earlier reports and consulted public opinion on all sides, there no longer remains the slightest doubt in our mind that this evil should be eradicated. . Emperor Wu did not want the spread of Buddhism to continue because it advocates one to focus on reaching nirvana, and in order to reach nirvana people would join monasteries and â€Å"abandon their lords and parents for the company of teachers. † Obviously any leader such as Wu would not want his subjects to stop contributing to the country and focus on reaching enlightenment. This explains why he would write in oppo sition of the spread of Buddhism. Another response was that the spread of Buddhism was good for both the community and society. A leading Buddhist scholar, Zong Mi, wrote (document 5) â€Å"Confucius, Laozi, and the Buddha were perfect sages†¦ All three teachings lead to the creation of an orderly society and for this they must be observed with respect. † This scholar and many others agree that Buddhism is good and that it contributes to an orderly society. One reason for this belief is that Buddhist try to achieve self-peace, and then become bodhisattvas and help others achieve nirvana. This document also shows us that Buddhism is in perfect harmony with the already existent philosophies, and that the three (Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism) come together to supplement each other and together create a peaceful society. Zong Mi wrote in favor of Buddhism because of the fact that he is a Buddhist scholar and wanted others to see that Buddhism is good for the people as a whole. An Anonymous Chinese scholar wrote (document 3) â€Å"To compare the sages to the Buddha would be like comparing a white deer to a unicorn or a swallow to a phoenix†¦ The [Buddhist] monk practices the Way and substitutes that for worldly pleasures. He accumulates goodness. † Through the tone of the anonymous scholar, it seems evident that he reveres the Buddhist to be peaceful and of good-natured. The author wrote this in response to a few proposed problems, and he showed that the supposed â€Å"negatives† are not bad at all, but simply misunderstandings of the goods of Buddhism. The third response was that because of the spread of Buddhism many more people would be able to reach nirvana and get away from sorrow. In the first sermon preached, Buddha said (document 1) â€Å"The first Noble Truth is the truth of sorrow. Birth is sorrow, age is sorrow, disease is sorrow, death is sorrow, contact with the unpleasant is sorrow, separation from the pleasant is sorrow, and every wish unfilled is sorrow. The second Noble Truth is the Noble Truth of the Arising of Sorrow: it arises from craving, which leads to rebirth, which brings delight and passion, and seeks pleasure. The third Noble Truth is the Noble Truth of Sorrow. It is the complete stopping of that craving, so that no passion remains, leaving it, being emancipated from it, being released from it, giving no place to it. The fourth Noble Truth is the Noble Truth of the Way that Leads to the Stopping of Sorrow. † By acknowledging the four noble truths and then following the eightfold path, one is able to reach nirvana. Because these are the words of the creator of the Buddhism philosophy, it is clear to see that he is trying to show that through Buddhism, one can find peace from within. A Chinese scholar, Zhi Dun, wrote (document 2) â€Å"whosoever serves the Buddha and correctly observes the commandments, recites the Buddhist scriptures, and furthermore makes a vow to be reborn without ever abandoning his sincere intention, will at the end of his life be miraculously transported thither. He will behold the Buddha and be enlightened in his spirit, and then he will enter nirvana. † The Author wrote this when northern china was invaded by central Asian steppe nomads, and his tone is very optimistic. A possible reason for this him writing this with such hope is that during a time of unrest he was able to achieve partial or complete peace through Buddhism, and thus he is writing this to encourage others to follow Buddhism and obtain peace as he did. It would have been helpful for a map of how Buddhism spread into/around china or a map of the percentage of Buddhist every 10 years. This would have helped because one would have been able to see what areas were affected first and what areas were affected the most. From that, one would better be able to better comprehend the differences in responses to the spread of Buddhism. How to cite Spread of Buddhism in China, Essay examples

Lead Participate Collaboratively In A Team â€Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Discuss About The Lead Participate Collaboratively In A Team? Answer: Introducation During this lesson, I learned that teams are relied upon to produce results. However, execution is frustrated when colleagues don't function admirably together. A common group condition is fundamental to the team's success. A group is characterized as a gathering of individuals cooperating toward a shared objective. Without a target, there is no group. Thoughts for marketing a common purpose incorporate: Creating as well as surveying the group's charter. Discussing why the group exists. Allowing each colleague to express their commitment. Creating mottoes, images, honors, or notices that depict the group as one unit. Use the official reason to organize group activities. As a team leader, I identified the main aspects in a group that requires critical attention. Colleagues must believe each other if they are to cooperate effectively. Thoughts for building trust among colleagues include: Being honest and working to eradicate irreconcilable situations. Besides, abstain from talking behind each other's back and trust partners. I should believe them before they will trust me. Giving members the opportunity to be vindicated. Additionally, knowing everybody's part and being acquainted with the obligation of those elements make effectiveness and adaptability (Cannon-Bowers, and Salas, 2007). Ideas for illuminating parts of the group include: Review colleagues' parts frequently and relate colleague desires to the group's general purpose. Clarifying duties when activity planning. Learning what others do on the team and figuring out approaches to enable each other. Thirdly, Miscommunication to can make hard sentiments and undermine the achievement of the group . For instance, error in favor of over communicating, trying to see all angles and Working to clear up mistaken assumptions rapidly and accurately. Also, Reinforcing and perceiving colleague endeavors (Nancarrow et al. 2013). As a team leader, I identified some skills that relate to teamwork. First, I am equipped with conflict solving skills. It involves determining and respecting each sides point of view then identifying the area of conflict (Pinto, and Kharbanda, 2005). As such I have solved various problems among team members as well as giving insights on how to avoid future conflicts. Colleagues originate from varying backgrounds, with different foundations and points of view. It is, therefore, important to keep in mind that individuals can and do contrast with each other (Donnellon, 2006). Team members should attempt to learn as much as you can from others. Besides, keeping away from comments that attract antagonistic thoughtfulness regarding a man's one of a kind attributes and trying not to disregard the distinctions among colleagues (Stewart, and Sims, 2009). However, from experience working as a team and more so as a team leader can be challenging. One of the challenges faced was trying to give instructions to a member who is older by age. The problem is that this particular colleague disliked taking orders from me as I was younger than him. Nonetheless, as I was chosen team leader, I explained to the teammate that what he had done was disrespectful. However, the issue was handled amicably. Demonstrate critical self-review, self-management, and lifelong learning. As a person who wishes to follow a career in engineering, I believe there are some behaviors that I need to change. First, time management. I have realized that my time management is abysmal. It is an issue that has been pointed out by colleagues and my supervisor. Upon self-reflection, I have realized that keeping time and meeting deadlines are some of the things that I have been lagging behind in (Britton, and Tesser, 2011). I need to change my procrastination behavior by ensuring the tasks are completed before the deadline. I realize that time management is necessary for my career, as well as while working in a team. Secondly, I can be quite indecisive. As a team leader, this had always been a challenge, though a different team member was always able to complement. I realize that decision-making is an important skill that works towards achieving goals promptly. I need to become more decisive by making decisions based on the adequate information available on the situation. Addition ally, my lighthearted indifference has been pointed out as a tendency that shows lack of precision and commitment. As such, becoming a better timekeeper and decisive should aid in my career. Time management is one of my poor qualities. Time and again it has been pointed out to me that this behavior would cost me projects and business relationships if I did not correct it. Meeting deadlines is a significant issue in time management. I have a habit of procrastination that always leads to lack of meeting deadlines. As such, with my poor time management, it could result in delays in projects, costing more money to my clients and eventually ruining prospect business relations. Though I always arrive at my workplace in time, task completion is my worst time management. I either take longer than average time taken to complete a task, or I tend to postpone some activities. It leads to accumulation of works that could eventually affect my efficiency at the workplace (Trueman, and Hartley, 2006). I have been working on my career plan. Though some details still require refining as I work towards attaining my career goals, most aspects have been organized. First I would wish to work in Chess engineering PTY Ltd. I believe that the corporation is equipped with different structural and civil engineering resources that would enable me to acquire various skills in engineering. In the future, I would also like to start my engineering company. Despite my engineering focus, I would wish to learn an assortment of skills that relate to all areas of engineering as well as organization competencies (Chess Engineering. 2017). I intend to obtain these aptitudes through apprenticeship and school learning. References Britton, B.K., and Tesser, A., 2011. Effects of time-management practices on college grades. Journal of educational psychology, 83(3), p.405. Cannon-Bowers, J.A., and Salas, E., 2007. Teamwork competencies: The interaction of team member knowledge, skills, and attitudes. Workforce Readiness: Competencies and assessment, pp.151-174. Chess Engineering. 2017. Australian Engineering Specialists | Chess Industries. [online] Available at: https://www.chessindustries.com.au/ [Accessed 14 Sep. 2017]. Donnellon, A., 2006. Team talk: The power of language in team dynamics (No. 04; e-book.). Nancarrow, S.A., Booth, A., Ariss, S., Smith, T., Enderby, P. and Roots, A., 2013. Ten principles of good interdisciplinary teamwork. Human resources for Health, 11(1), p.19. Pinto, J.K., and Kharbanda, O.P., 2005. Successful project management: leading your team to success. Van Nostrand Reinhold. Stewart, G.L.M. and Sims, C.C., 2009. Team work and group dynamics (No. 658.4036 S8). Trueman, M. and Hartley, J., 2006. A comparison between the time-management skills and academic performance of mature and traditional-entry university students. Higher education, 32(2), pp.199-215.

Marshall School of Business Essays - Marketing, Business Economics

Marshall School of Business University of Southern California MARKETING 465 GLOBAL MARKETING MANAGEMENT Spring, 2011 Faculty: Dennis A. Schorr, Ph.D. Office: ACC 226 Phone: 740-5041 E-mail: [emailprotected] Office Hours: Mon. 3:30-5:30 P.M. or by appointment Course Objectives: The major objectives of this course are to: a) Understand the key characteristics of various country markets and how to develop marketing plans in diverse environments b) Appreciate the limitations of an ethnocentric approach to international marketing and develop a complex, global perspective on marketing c) Understand the role of marketing in a company's global strategy and learn how to develop global marketing strategies d) Develop a multidimensional, nuanced perspective on marketing standardization vs. adaptation and learn how to balance the pressures for globalization vs. localization of the various elements of the marketing mix e) Appreciate the roles of global, regional, and local brands in a company's portfolio and learn how to manage effectively each type of product or service In support of these goals, the course is divided into five major topic areas. The first topic area focuses on the opportunities and challenges of international marketing and how to assess country environmental factors that are most relevant to the management of international marketing. The second topic area concentrates on how to select markets to enter and how to develop international and global marketing strategies. The third topic area examines the similarities and differences in product markets across countries and how to develop marketing strategies for various types of products and services. The fourth topic area deals with how to develop product policy in the international context including the management of branding, positioning, product attributes, and packaging. The fifth topic area is concerned with how to develop distribution/retailing, advertising/promotional, and pricing policies in the international context including how to manage the tradeoffs of standardization vs. adaptation associated with each element of the marketing mix. Throughout the course, a variety of country markets in various regions of the world will be discussed and a variety of different types of products and services will be addressed. Class Sessions: The class sessions will focus on the understanding of major concepts, frameworks, and analytical tools used in global marketing and the application of these concepts, frameworks, and tools to the understanding of real-world situations. The textbook chapters are designed as background reading to introduce the major concepts in the field. Readings are chosen to expose you to recent trends in global marketing. Case discussions will develop your skills in applying the concepts to actual managerial situations. Assignments and exercises will also assist in developing your knowledge and competencies in the area. Class sessions will consist of lectures in which conceptual material will be clarified and of discussions of cases, readings, exercises, and concepts to allow you to practice applying the material. Before each class session, you should read the assigned textbook chapters, readings, and cases and be prepared to discuss them in class. Course Evaluation: 25% Midterm Exam 25% Final Exam 10% Class Participation 10% Group Assignment # 1 10% Group Assignment # 2 10% Group Assignment # 3 10% Group Assignment # 4 As an important part of the learning in this course comes from class, you are expected to participate actively in class sessions. The level of class discussions and how much you gain from them depend in large part on how well prepared you are for each class and how actively you take part in the discussions. Thus, your level of preparation for class sessions and participation in discussions will be factored into the final evaluation. I realize that occasionally it is not possible to attend class. You can miss up to three class sessions without it affecting your grade; however, if you miss more than three sessions, it could have an impact on your participation grade. Occasionally, I will ask groups to make informal presentations in class; these informal presentations will be factored into the participation grade. Your individual mastery of the course material will be tested in a midterm and a final examination. The exams are designed to assess your knowledge of the material covered up to that point in the course. The four group assignments should be completed in groups of 4-5 people. They are designed to give you hands-on experience developing skills relevant to global marketing. Learning in these assignments should be enhanced by interacting and discussing the material with other members of your group. Peer evaluations of each member of your group will be conducted to ensure that all members contribute equitably to the assignments. All assignments are due at the

6 Critical AP Exam Tips to Ace Your Tests

6 Critical AP Exam Tips to Ace Your Tests SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips The most important thing you can do to maximize your chances of getting a 5 on an AP exam is to learn the material. However, it is a standardized test, and there are strategies you can use to maximize your chances of success and make sure your hard work pays off. Keep reading for my top AP examtips! #1: Do Easy Questions First There’s no rule that you have to answer all of the questions in a given section in order. If you come to a question that looks either difficult or time-consuming, it’s fine to skip it and come back later. This applies to both the multiple-choice and free-response sections. Just make sure you are careful when you fill out your Scantron or your test booklet! Once you make a first pass and answer all the slam-dunk questions, then you can buckle down on the harder or more tedious questions.Don’t let yourself get held up too much on any one question, though. If you feel yourself getting bogged down, skip that question, and come back to it to either work on it more (if you have time) or guess (if you don’t). #2: Answer Every Question- But Be Smart About It Since there is no guessing penalty on AP exams, it is to your advantage to answer every question. If you aren’t sure of the right answer on a multiple-choice question, eliminate as many answers as you confidently can before guessing.This will up your chances of guessing the right answer and getting points! On a free-response or short answer question, just do the best you can to guess based on what you remember. If you leave a question blank, you’ll definitely get zero points, but if you write something even a little bit relevant, you might get partial points! And even one point is better than zero. #3: Manage Time Carefully You are allowed to bring a watch to the exam just so long as it doesn’t make noise. I highly advise doing so, so that you’ll be aware of how you are doing on time at any given moment. It’s critical that you pace yourself on the exam. On the multiple-choice section, if you notice yourself getting stuck on a particular question or series of questions, skip them and come back at the end. Don’t let a few questions completely tank your time. If you’re staring at a question in confusion for longer than a minute, move on and come back to it. On the free-response section, time management is even more critical because you’ll need to complete a series of tasks in an allotted amount of time, but you won’t be prompted to move on to the next essay or question. Keeping track of time will let you know if you’re on target to finish everything. You should have time targets for each essay or task in mind when you go into the test. This kind of clock is not allowed! #4: Plan Your Essays Carefully This may not apply to every AP exam- it’s hard to plan a math problem in advance- but for APs that do have essay questions, it’s critical that you plan them out before you start writing them. Even five minutes spent quickly jotting down your thesis and the main ideas of your paragraphs will help you write the essay faster, make your argument stronger, and ensure your essay is better-organized and more coherent. A slightly more detailed outline that denotes where you are going to include specific examples and evidence is even better if you have time. #5: Bring Water and a Snack for the Break This might seem like a relatively trivial tip, but you may experience some serious test fatigue during your AP exams. Bringing water and a snack- preferably one with a bit of protein and complex carbs, like a peanut butter granola bar- will help you stay energized through the exam and keep you from fading during the free-response section. An appropriate snack. #6: Keep Up Positive Self-Talk You might hit a bump in the road on exam day. Maybe you’ll see a question type you weren’t quite prepared for, forget something you thought you knew inside and out, or be totally stumped by a free-response question. The important thing if this happens is to not panic. Maintain positive self-talk. Tell yourself you are doing great. Move on to another question. Even if you’re still stumped when you come back around to it, keep telling yourself that you’re crushing the rest of the test. And then just do the best you can on the test. Key Takeaways If you want to get a 5 on your AP exam, the best thing you can do for yourself is to learn the material. However, there is still a strategic element to taking the AP, just like on other standardized tests. Here are my top six AP exam tips: Do easy questions first and come back to the harder ones later. Answer every question, but only guess after eliminating all the answers you know are wrong. Bring a watch and manage your time carefully! Carefully plan out your essays before you start writing! (This tip doesn’t apply to those APs without essays). Bring water and a snack for the break! Maintain positive self-talk, even if you hit a snag! With these AP test tips, you’ll maximize your chances of getting the score you’re aiming for! What's Next? Need more guidance on AP preparation? See our five-step plan on how to study for AP exams. Do you need an AP test perfect score?Read this guide to learn if it's something you should be aiming for. Taking a history AP exam? See our guide on how to write a top-scoring DBQ. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points? We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

Best cost provider Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Best cost provider - Essay Example Best cost provider is a strategy that works towards striving to give customers the value of their money by combining an emphasis on low cost with on upscale differential. Porters power of supplier strategy is one form of best cost provider. It is a basis through which the producer can understand where power lies in a business situation. Based on the above scenario, the porters power of supplier would help the producer determine where to invest. It is clear that the power for the above named products lies in the quality, price, model, durability because these are the main factors driving the marketing of these products. Market research reveals that the quality is the power source for the multi-featured cameras. This means that the producer must consider the quality as far as the multi-featured camera is concerned. On the other hand, the price is the power source for the entry level camera. Because of this, the producer must ensure that the price matches the one in the market (Strickla nd & Thompson, 2001). SWOT analysis strategy is a tool for determining the strength, weakness, opportunities and threats. Opportunities are important as far as the best cost provider strategy is concerned. They are external chances that help to improve performance (e.g. make greater profits) in the environment. As a producer of the Entry and multi feature camera, it is essential to determine the opportunities for each of these products. There are a number of opportunities. These include the price/quality ration, the model selection, attractive discounts, advertising and special promotion. The producer should utilize one or combination of these opportunities based on the product in question (Strickland & Thompson, 2001). Based on the above discussion, it is clear that the best marketing strategy is determined by considering those competitive factors that determine the market share. It is clear that the price/quality ratings are the main

The Law on Occupiers Liability Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4500 words

The Law on Occupiers Liability - Essay Example When the girl poured the contents in the glass, it contained the decomposed remains of a snail. The girl was ill in consequence and sued the manufacturer for damage in tort. It was held the defendant was liable as he owed her duty of care to ensure that the bottle should contain objectionable matter as it did. (Jertz, 2004) We find that the occupiers' liability act provides a limited duty of care on occupiers to ensure that measures for protection of properties or other people from the risks that exist, in this law we find that there are provisions that follow this act, these provisions are: it abolishes the old distinction between licensees and invitees this category of persons include anyone to whom the occupier has expressly or implicitly allowed to enter or use his premises in this case the trespasser is not included. The act provides that an occupier of premises owes to all visitors that duty to take care in all circumstances therefore, it is necessary for the occupier to ensure that the visitor will be safe in using the premises for the purpose for which he has been permitted to be there. We also find that under the act, the occupier however has a right to restrict his liability by giving adequate warning such as about slippery floors. Here the occupier is not liable where the accident has occurred through the defective work of an independent contractor was competent and so far as he was able he had inspected the work done. (Jertz, 2004) The law on occupiers' liability to an injured trespasser is usually classified under the law of tort according to the present law. Whereby tort is defined as a civil wrong free of contracts, meaning it is an act that causes harm to a determined person whether intentionally or not. The remedies for these acts are always unliquidated damages which indicate that the court has power to fix the damages. Tort normally vary from contracts whereby we find that in contracts the duties are usually fixed by the parties under agreement themselves while in tort the duties are imposed by the law. Also we find that the law of tort is an infringement of the civil rights belonging to an individual in this case we find that the wrong doer has to compensate the injured party, according to the recent law the action is brought by the aggrieved party so that he can obtain compensation. This law constitutes of three major elements that is there must be a wrongful act or omission by the defendant this means that there must a person who is being sued for his wrongful acts. Secondly there must be a legal damage and lastly the wrongful act must be of such nature as to give rise to a legal remedy in the form of an action for the damages. There also exist some civil wrongs that are actionable even though no damage is suffered by the plaintiff. An example of such a civil wrong is the trespass on land. In recent law we find that there are many types of torts such trespass and defamation but in the real sense it represents a civil wrong whose only remedy is a common law. In the case of the law on the occupier's liability to injured trespassers we find that it

The application of sustainability Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

The application of sustainability - Essay Example Hence, CABE, the government’s advisor on architecture, urban design and public space, considers investment in sustainable development as a national insurance policy, which makes cities better places to live in, creating new jobs and reducing fuel scarcity and traffic congestion. Seven issues have been highlighted by CABE to focus on while working towards sustainability. They are: reducing energy usage, optimising power supply to buildings, making streets fit for people, rethinking waste, planning for shortage/excess of water, moderating heat, and creating green spaces. The most important step towards achieving sustainability is reducing the inefficient use of finite resources. Reduction targets should be fixed, progress reviewed, effects updated regularly and published. The leaders should be able to think long-term and make long-term decisions and long-term goals. Energy and waste should be planned and managed together. There should be greater control of land and assets with i ncreased investment in energy security, flood protection and water supply. Investments should be made in urban forestry, and buildings should be assessed for sustainable designs. Valuation and asset management should be reviewed, shifting focus to long-term returns ensuring more protection from boom and bust cycles (CABE 2009, p.9). Fragmentation of land ownership could lead to sub-standard maintenance of land and the structures on it. Cities should create an energy strategy, involving the utility companies, tracing the current and future needs and planning for the future, prioritising low-carbon, sustainable energy sources. Efforts should be made to reduce energy consumption to power buildings. Renewable energy technologies should be used along with behavioural changes to ensure energy security. The transportation system, including the roads, should be planned is such a way that there is minimum need for travel. Streets should be maintained in an improved

Adding Value In Supply Chain Management Commerce Essay

Adding Value In Supply Chain Management Commerce Essay This chapter reviews the relevant literature and starts with discussion on Adding Value in supply chain management with special focus on pharmaceutical industry and to understanding firms supply chain management and competitive advantages. With involved four major points those are Challenges, Collaboration and Planning High performance delivery, Integration Implementation. Following there is a discussion on theoretical framework on supply chain management, role of top management and overview of latest supply chain management systems. In the last this chapter conclude with summary. 2.1 Adding Value in supply chain management: First question arise that what is Value adding in supply chain? Base on literature review value adding is the difference between input cost and output value (Hines, 2004, p.224). Value added along supply chain takes the form of tangible goods added and intangible services supplied (Hines, 2004). Value added notify to any additional value created at a particular stage of service by key service factors including; tangible value added through material transformation, labour and captical goods and intangible value added through capital and building of collaborative relationships. Firms can add value in many ways, like improve supply method from current level to higher level which is also part of add value in supply chain. Value adding resources within a supply chain are the tangible (processes). Intangible capabilities of a firm (firm attributes, firm controlled information, knowledge and collaborative relationships) enhance efficiency and effectiveness (Cunningham, 1995). By reviewing literature, the value chain concept was developed and popularized in 1985 by Michael Porter in Competitive Advantage. Porter defined value as the amount buyers or customers are willing to pay for what a firm provides, and he visualized the value chain as the arrangement of nine basic values to customers. Porter linked up the value chains between firms to form what he mentioned a value system; now in present era of globalisation and collaboration the link between two firms creating value process called the value chain. As value chain name involves the interpedently processes that generate value of products and the resulting demand and funds flows that are created. According to the Martin Christopher value chain activities can be categorized into two types primary activities (Inbound logistics, operations, outbound logistics, marketing and sales and services) and support activities (Infrastructure, human resource management, technology development and procurement) (Christo pher, 2005). From the literature review, author suggests that first, we need to understand the physical resources that are required within a supply chain to create and deliver a finished service to a customer. Second, we must understand the exchange relationship between particular supply chain resources and the flow of revenue in the value chain. Third, we must also understand what it is about the ownership and control of particular supply chain resources that allows certain resources to command more of the flow of value than others. In understanding this, the process of analytically mapping the properties of power within supply and value chains can commence. To deliver a value, product category and availability is also play important role in supply chain management. By reviewing literature, author understand that alternative perspective of viewing supply chains as value chains identifies economic value as being added through coordinated management of the flow of physical goods and information at each stage of the chain (Davis Stewart, 2004). The theoretical basis for supply chains, Handfield and Nichol (2002, p8), define them as including all organisation and activities associated with the flow and transformation of goods from the materials stage, through to the end user, as well as the associated information flows Information sharing is identified as a key driver for improving supply chain performance and enhancing competitive advantage (Zhang, 2006). Additionally supply chains can be characterised as value system and are defined as a connected series of organisations, resources and knowledge streams involved in the creation and delivery of value to the end customer(Handfield Nichols, 2002, P11). 2.1.2 Companys supply chain management and competitive advantage: Definition of supply chain is the network of organizations that are involved, through upstream and downstream linkages, in the different processes and activities that produce value in the form of products and services delivered to the ultimate consumer (Christopher 1992). In other words, a supply chain consists of multiple firms, both upstream (i.e., supply) and downstream (i.e., distribution), and the ultimate consumer (John T. Mentzer, 2001). The philosophy behind supply-chain management has changed. Previously the central concept was to manage an inventory that acted as a buffer between a limited production capacity and variable customer demands. The scope of the task was interpreted as managing warehouses and transport operations. The current priority is to engineer the supply chain as a seamless whole, breaking down the barriers that have existed between purchasing, production, distribution and sales. These issues are particularly relevant to the pharmaceutical industry. Functions have traditionally operated independently and there has been a consequent sub optimization of the supply chain by fragmenting it along functional lines. In its new form, supply-chain management is a corporate-level task on which several strategic objectives depend, not least ensuring a satisfactory return on capital employed while ensuring the supply of goods and services to designated markets at the service levels demanded. To achieve this, even at a national level, using local facilities to supply local markets is a challenge, requiring close integration of the supply chain and subjugation of functional/ departmental objectives to the needs of the supply chain as a whole. To achieve it globally is much more difficult (Booth, 1996). 2.1.3 Contemporary approaches to achieve competitive advantage: One of the first ideas about theoretical framework for understanding firms performance is Porter (1980). He introduces a strategic and analytical approach to understanding competitive strategy, and said that Every firm competing in an industry has a competitive strategy, whether open or hidden (Porter, 1980). He proposes a framework for analysis industries and competitors and describes three generic strategies, cost leadership, differentiation and focus. He postulates that if a firm is able to do well in any of these strategic fields, It will gain competitive advantage. Porters concept is portraying in below figure. Competitive Advantage of a Firm Generic Competitive strategies Overall cost leadership Differentiation Focus Figure: 2-1: Strategies to achieve competitive advantage: source Porter (1980). -Cost Leadership is most important in competitive pharmaceutical distribution chain, efficient-scale facilities, pursuit of cost reductions, and cost minimization in all areas of the firm. This action can increase companys profit. -Differentiation of product like, different one medicine in different brand (Ports and Blister pack) or service differentiation including design and brand image, customer service, and distribution or dealer network. This action can help increase customer loyalty and ensure often purchase. -Focus on markets, buyers or product line (new line of medicine with its generics version) can help to achieve competitive advantage. The framework of Porter, in fig 2-1 shows, that the proficient strategies can provide competitive advantage. Porter (1980) also argues that competitive advantage comes from the many separate activities a firm achieve in designing, storage, marketing, delivering and creating owns products. Each of this processing contributes to a firms relative cost to position and creates a basis for differentiation. This is the Pharmaceutical logistic value chain, and a firm has to recollection its strategically relevant activities in order to understand the behaviour of costs and the existing and potential sources of differentiation. A company gains competitive advantage by performing these strategically important activities better than its competitors (Porter, 1985). The general value chain concept, and Sigmas existing concept is illustrated in figure 2-2. Supply chain advance Marketing Leadership Advance Primary Activities Profit Margin Support Activities Inbound Sigma House Picking and Customer Marketing Logistics (Warehouse) Assembling Service Tele-sales Procurement Human Resource Management Technology service Development Firm (Sigmas) Infrastructure and Platform Services Figure 2-2: The value chain and Theoretical Framework to achieve competitive Advantage (Adapted from Porter 1985). The definition of supply chain including all basic activities, therefore sales, marketing and customer service activities can be construed as part of the supply chain approach show in the above figure. In company, Tele-sales and marketing processes, such as demand management, order processing and customer relationship building management are included in the internal processes shown in the figure and in the supply chain literature review. However, sales and marketing activity, such as sales calls, advertising and some post delivery support processes are excluded from supply chain activity. This is consistent with the approach taken by the supply chain model it uses to measure supply chain activity (Supply chain council, 2007). There is various types of approaches to achieve competitive advantage, strategic approach, 2.1.4 The strategic Planning approach: In important of porter (1980) approaches, a strategic planning approach that is companys competitive advantage can be planned for this. This includes planning for differentiation in the delivering a value in supply chain, low cost leadership and focus. Strategy is always the product of a complex and unexpected interplay between basic information, personalities and aspiration according to Hamel (1998). What this implies is that one does not gain for obvious solution and strategies but should look at alternatives, challenge assumptions, and look at new ways of delivering superior customer value and firm performance. 2.1.5 Marketing strategy approach: The marketing capabilities approach introduces the concept of capabilities of a market driven organization and explores the links between capabilities and a firms performance and market success (Day, 1999). A firms competitive advantage comes from two sources: Assets or resources, which are acquired over time and distinct capabilities, which are the glue that holds these assets together. Examples are DHLs secure delivery across the globe and Walmarts logistic systems. Such capabilities provide competitive advantage and help organization to deliver a value to its every customer. Other Proponents of the marketing capability approach are cool and Derrick (1989), Aaker (1989), caves and Gale (1987). The concept of capabilities is not new and was proposed much earlier by penrose in 1959. However, this has been popularized as the concept of core competencies of the corporation that can lead to a firms success by Hamel and Prahalad in 1990. They actually propose some tests to measure the st rength and success of core competencies. An example of Federal expresses its packaging and delivery process. The product differentiation approach by Trout (2000), states that what matters is differentiation of product or service, that are too many choice in todays world, and only differentiation provides competitive advantage. In Pharmaceutical business there many manufacture produce a medicine under different choice, keeping all different sort of product and supplying on time will be better advantage over the competitive. 2.1.6 The Introduction of the supply chain approach: In the competitive market of the early decade, there has been a change in management action, resulting for searching strategies that provide superior value to customers. As a result in the supply chain approach to gaining competitive advantage has moved into the frontline of business strategies, especially in developed countries. This approach has its introduced from historical military campaigns (Britannica, 1999) and recently from porter of value chain, with its importance on inbound and outbound logistics, and production operation. In a discussion on marketing logistics thinking argue that logistics has major impact on customer satisfaction, success and costs. They recommend that a firm manage its entire supply chain and that such an approach will add value in existing supply chain within the organization and will help to gain competitive advantage over rival. 2.2 Supply chain Management and factors: 2.2.1 Definition of supply chain and management: It will be helpful to go through some basic definitions of supply chain and management: Supply chain is all inter linked resources and activities needed to create and deliver products and service to customers (Hakanson, 1999). Supply chain management goes advance and including managing supply and demand, resourcing, assembling and packing, distribution across the globe and delivery to the every customer (Supply chain council, 2009). A more on supply chain management is a network of relationships, with the goal to deliver superior value, the management of upper level and lower level relationships with suppliers and customers to deliver best value in services at effective cost to the supply chain as a whole (Christopher, 1998). This definition is a key part of this dissertation in terms of gaining competitive advantage or delivering best value to sigma pharmaceutical customers. 2.2.2 Key areas of Supply chain management system: References Literature Review 1. Christopher, M. (2005). Logistic and supply chain managment. London: FT prentice Hall. 2. Handfield, R. B. Nichols, E. L. (2002) Supply Chain Redesign: Transforming Supply Chains into Integrated Value systems, U.S.A: Prentice Hall. 3. Zhang, C. (2006). Secure Information sharing in Internet-based supply chain management systerms. Coumputer Information Systems , 18-24. 4.

Phyllis Wheatley :: essays research papers

Televangelists like Jimmy Swaggert and Jim and Tammy Fay Bakker promise the Christian faith to millions everyday. For the right price, anybody can have something- a.k.a. Christianity, God, and faith- in their lives. On these shows, there is no need to have believed in religion before, as long as there is a need for it now. Religious telecasts asking for money in exchange for faith attract nearly five million people each year. Fifty-five percent of these people are elderly woman; Thirty-five percent are from the desperation pool, the poorest and neediest members of society; The remaining ten percent are those who might be classified as upper-middle class, who want spiritual justification for their greed. Most of us know that the religion professed on these telecasts is not about trusting in God or having a deep belief in his teachings, ideas that aggregate Christianity in society. Instead, the old, the poor, and the rich are buying something to have as their own when they have nothing else, whether it be in the material, social, or emotional sense. So-called faith gives them possession, yet places responsibility in the hands of a higher force. And in that, they are hoping to find freedom in knowing that their lives are less empty and without direction. It may seem that we can hardly relate the televangelist audience of the 20th Century to poetic views on Christianity of the 18th Century, but surprisingly, there lies many similarities between the two.. Both Anne Bradstreet and Phyllis Wheatley appeal to Christianity after their own personal tragedies. These women, like the many viewers who watch Church-TV everyday, have lost everything and are left with nothing. In an attempt to fill the void in their lives, left by Bradstreet’s burnt house and Wheatley’s treatment as a slave, they turn to the Christian faith that at times seems as empty as the faith that can be commercialized and sold by dramatists on television. In analyzing "Here Follows Some Verses Upon the Burning of Our House" and "On Being Brought from Africa to America," I will consider Christian faith as means of coping with nothingness, rather than a pious way of life. While making references to Anne Bradstreet’s similar development of faith, I will contend that Phyllis Wheatley’s Christianity seen is sought out for her own purposes in times of feeling nullity rather than a confident belief or trust in God and the acceptance of God’s will. Phyllis Wheatley’s first appeals to Christianity emerge as she is transported on a slave ship from West Africa to Boston in July 1761, which begins the poem under analysis.

The Harbour – Creative Writing

The harbour begins to wake as the rhythmic chug of boat engines slowly return. The waves explode like bombs against the harbour wall. Fog is dispersing to view a fantasy of narrow streets strung with captivating souvenir shops and sophisticated restaurants. Morning darkness fades, slowly the clouds drift, revealing a pure, spotless blue sky. The town hall strikes 8 o'clock, shop shutters rattle as they raise, doors bursting open with a helping hand awaiting to welcome the customer with an embrace. A pungent smell of fish fills the air. A gust of wind full with repulsive odour lingers. Sun-kissed light pours from the sky, the reflection upon the water blinding. Solitary streets are now animated. Harmony is no more but the day is still premature. Exhaust fumes float as workers withdraw from their homes and start up their engines. The traffic is solid throughout the town. People barge their way to local banks and supermarkets through overflowing pathways. Tourists disembark upon the harbour, beginning the long awaited holiday. An enchanted wonderland of fair attractions sit upon the end of the pier, slowly they complete their circuits. Breakfast bars open in the car parks serving up crisp bacon sandwiches dripping with butter and blistering coffee. Along the harbour front, fishermen sit mending their nets as though they are knitting. People drift in and out of streets, some white, some red, some tanned; the sun's violent rays causing skins pigment to discolour. Young and old take a morning stroll along a beach like stretch of empty space. The view is cleared, what you see sends shivers down your back, the sea's elegance and harbour in almost complete perfection. Slowly a frying fragrance finds it's way up your nostrils. Yes, lunchtime rush, takeaway shops and restaurants are in full flow. The beach is filling; young children begin to play their electrifying games. Everywhere you roam there are fish and chips. Lightly battered fish, so crisp when you take a bite. Slowly the batter falls down your oesophagus leaving succulent flakes of cod warming your lips and tongue. Chips so soft, your first taste is sea salt and malt vinegar, secondly the slight grease tickling the back of your throat. A taste of potato whirls as your teeth chew, and then all matter of food disappears from your mouth. Guilt in your mind about the fat content but the taste takes it away. Squawks are amongst the crowds as gulls swoop down for scraps. Gently relaxation occurs. Youngsters run with slight indigestion, the smouldering crisp sand making their young feet so sore. Afternoon falls. The beach is still packed with sunbathers and children. A drowsiness dawns. Some people sit upon the harbour wall watching waves ripple in. Sticks of rock go crunch, candyfloss melts and fudge just makes you chew. A confectionary wonderland! Laughter is surrounding showing every sign of full enjoyment. Deeper into the town humanity is all common, drifting to and fro from high street designers to leather stenching shoe stores. Streets littered with cake wrappers from the bakery, sandwich boxes from the deli bar and general junk here and there. Coke cans crunch beneath your feet as you walk and a gorgeous perfume aroma wafts and asthmatics begin to choke. Calmness never seems to occur. Moving back through the town and down to the harbour, the beach is slowly beginning to clear and the tide is creeping close. Bath taps drip as parents eagerly attempt to untangle their children's sandy locks. Light is fading cautiously as evening draws in. Couples appear arm in arm. Shop shutters once again rattle as they close. Restaurants' distinct smell is inviting. Open bars serve up crisps, nuts and cold beverages, alcoholic or not. Glasses chink as drunken chatter begins. In sight is a beautiful sunset, the red glow inspiring just like a painted picture but all fades when darkness gradually descends. Soothing music from an unknown live band rings in your ears. Fishing boats begin to proceed out to sea. Hard workers wander down their local pulling out the pennies to achieve a taste of real ale. All that is recognisable in the darkness is faint outlines of people and places. Ping! Pier lights turn on in their own unique brilliance. Club beats compose vibrations throughout the floor. People dancing and laughing makes the world seem blissful. So many people are having a good time. Slowly the volume creeps louder almost making your ears burst. Bang, tequila slammers hit the table hard, barely touch your lips but soon make you intoxicated. Jazz and liquor is no combination for anyone who is angelic and always seems to be composed. ‘Ring a ding ding', bells sound. Last orders it's time to go home. An emanation of alcohol is upon everyone. Silence in the end. As the lighthouse flickers like a candle the glimpse of a silent shadow tumbles to its death. Anyone still awake, outside can only smell sea-salt and waste grub. The harbour is never always in tranquillity.

Why was Britain gripped by widespread social disorder during 1919 Essays

Why was Britain gripped by widespread social disorder during 1919 Essays Why was Britain gripped by widespread social disorder during 1919 Essay Why was Britain gripped by widespread social disorder during 1919 Essay Essay Topic: Mythologies In 1919, against a background of worldwide violence and unrest involving people of African dissent, there occurred in Britain a series of racial riots and incidents, which in their severity and extent were unlike anything that had gone before1. There were riots in; Barry, Cardiff, Glasgow, Liverpool, London, Newport and South Shields. The motives behind these race riots are hard to establish because there are so many different crucial factors for the social disorder in 1919. I intend to divide the question up based on the key words or phrases in the question, I will particularly focus on the race riots in Liverpool. It will always be difficult regardless of the period to try and understand peoples mental motivations for things such as riots and racial attacks when one is not in that society, just as today we find it hard to understand or sympathize with racial attacks. However there are elements that could and presumably did contribute to the heightened tensions of 1919 that reached its zenith with the race riots in the summer months, including; the First world war, popular opinion, jealously and innate and socialized racism. In the year 1919 the nation was literally in turmoil, the period itself was a transitional one being after the first world war and this formed what I believe to be one of the crucial factors in the race riots in 1919. It is possible to underestimate the immense effect the literal first world war would have had on society. Men were trained to be soldiers and a key feature of army training is to dehumanize and demoralize men, so they will be institutionalized therefore more effective and obedient soldiers. This must have had an overtly negative effect on the situations leading up to the race riots. The men may have possibly through trench warfare been more accustomed to violence and have less of a respect for the sanctity of human life and possessions and they would have been more willing to resort to violence. There was also a firm idea of Britishness instilled in to the soldiers of the First World War. Undoubtedly men who fought for king and country were more concerned with this idea, and wold want to preserve British culture and a pure race. There was also the element of colonialism, England as a colonial power was thought to be above those countries and areas it controlled, and therefore there was a lack of respect for other races. Another possible yet hypothetical argument could possibly be that of racism in the army. There have been numerous cases of racism and possibly this is a way of thinking believed by many who serve, this may have affected the way men thought about those of ethnic or racial minorities. Undoubtedly war had unleashed demons that couldnt be tamed and British men ( it is hard to know about the women) were more ready to use violence. There had been many precedents before the 1919 riots, therefore the riotous nature of the cities is an element in the fracases. There had been major anti-German and anti Jewish riots previously. The armistice celebrations in 1918 had degenerated into riot and disorder. The 1911 Transport strike showed the industry militancy spilling into violence. There was also riots in May 1915 at the sinking of the Lucitania Ship and the 1918 end of the war celebrations descended into mad looting and celebrations. Liverpool in particular had a history of riotous behavior. There had been five major riots in Liverpool, 1911,1915,1919, police riots. Once a riot starts it is opportunity that spurs a lot of people on to commit crimes that they would not usually commit. It is possible that there became an opportunistic element to the riots with different groups in society taking advantage of the disorder and the pressure on the police force to loot and attack. It is probable that there were many people involved in the riots that werent directly affected by the implied problems of immigration. It was those seafarers who were directly involved. However it is reported that there were over 6000 people rioting, I believe it is not possible for all 6000 to be involved in the seafarer industry therefore some must have been opportunistic rioters, such as the younger gangs of children who were often active in initiating the disturbances. Rioting recently in other countries such as Russia worried the government and, produced a feeling that social dissent happening in one part of the world had a direct effect on another2. Also once the rioting started in Britain their was a ripple effect with other port inhabitants seeing riot as an acceptable way to vent their anger at the injustices that that government made on a minority group. After the First World War there was an uncertainty felt by many, this specific context is incredibly important as to why the riots began. There was such a huge element of politics involved. The 1918 khaki election was directly in the aftermath of the First World War. The election rhetoric was highly confusing, they talked about the fruits of the British peoples labor and payments for their war time effort. There was never a specific line set out, the population was waiting with baited breath. One slogan that many picked up on was the, homes for heroes. This social policy intended to replace the urban slums with fresh housing stock. In reality there was a shortage of houses so many were facing the possibility homelessness which dramatically increased the tension especially in Liverpool and London. Looking at the race riots specifically in Liverpool it is possible to see how all these wider issues coupled with local problems led to the race riots; the significance of unemployment among seamen as a casual factor of the 1919 disorder similar episodes occurred among other sea faring communities. 3The long-term effects were important, chiefly that of economics. The Seafarers had returned to the ports and there was huge competition for jobs since thousands of immigrants had been imported to fill those spaces vacated by the British servicemen. There were reported incidents where Black British citizens and immigrants were turned away from jobs in order to employ British servicemen. It has been estimated that between November 1918 and March 1919 over 2,100,000 ranks had been de-mobilized. 4, There was a reported population of 3000 black seafarers in Liverpool coupled with the Chinese and Filipino workers, unemployment levels were huge. In some factories white workers refused to work along side black workers, so they were dismissed and replaced with white workers. An interesting point however is that the Seafarers didnt object to working along Scandinavians, so it was not a case of nationality it was purely defined by the color of the skin, which could suggest that it wasnt xenophobia. Another element that caused resentment was that foreign seafarers were employed for less than British men, this undercutting then forced the British workers wages down, laborers believed that blacks usurped whites through their acceptance of lower wages 5. This was also a problem that dated back to the 1880s and there is evidence of xenophobic behavior backed up by the unions. Linked to the dire economic situation was the perceived ideas about the wealth of black resident.. It was a popular thought that the black community had benefited from the war. Some black residents had purchased houses and this was thought to be unacceptable while white demobilized soldiers were homeless. However Jenkinson argues that, while primarily rooted in economic grievances, breaking out again in the early 1920s when the fortunes of the merchant shipping industry fell even lower as the post war recession set in therefore if] economic competition directly provoked riots, reinforces the notion that racial antagonism rather than a basic cause of the violence, was entrenched in the superstructure of Britain at this time. 7 Inter racial sexual relations was another element that heavily influenced the riots. The fear of miscegenation was picked up by the popular press and was almost used as an excuse for the racism. This is particularly evident in Liverpool and London where this is mentioned as a motive from the outset. 8 Sexual relations possibly angered the white population for a number of reasons. Firstly they could have been intimidated and jealous of the reality that they had been away and life had carried on without them. Secondly after fighting the war for Britain the ex-servicemen were possibly more patriotic and wanted to keep the idea of Britishness and a pure white race, even though this was never admitted openly. This issue was highly contended all over the country not just in the port towns. There were numerous newspaper articles perceiving this was a problem, even broad sheets felt threatened by the idea of white women marrying or engaging in sexual relations with black men. Jenkinson believes that, black men and white women was mentioned as an anathema, and soon the stress was laid on savage instincts of the black man9. This is also highlighted in the Liverpool Courier; the average Negro is nearer the animal than is the average white man, and that there are women in Liverpool who have no self respect. 10 However it is important to note the hypocritical element in this argument because there was reported to be over 600,000 half-caste children in South Africa due to white servicemen engaging in sexual relations with the native women. Rowe makes the interesting point that the feelings of miscegenation may not have been a prominent cause for the riot within the working class communities, it is possible the opinion of the middleclass journalists who reported on the race riots in the press. 11 The second element of the question is the idea of rioting in the whole of Britain. There was disorder in 1919 in Ireland, Scotland, Wales and England. In Ireland and Scotland, the rioting was not racially orientated, however its influence is evident. Glasgow saw social unrest in the early months of 1919. There was a General Strike to attempt to petition for a 40 hour week. However it was the governments reaction that had a negative effect. The industry in Glasgow was paralyzed and the government feared that the protesters could turn revolutionary (influenced possibly by other countrys as mentioned earlier). The government sent in army troops and tanks showing that they didnt want disturbances to the peace at any cost however it served to make the demonstrations more violent and made residents more disillusioned with the government. Ireland also suffered riots in January. The IRA assassinated the RIC, this was the first moment the IRA used an assassin as a weapon and it deeply shocked Ireland. The unrest continued with the banning of Dail Eoreann and Sinn Fein. South Wales suffered race riots due to its ports prominent position. Britain as a whole had a unison of innate racist attitudes (as I mentioned earlier) even if institutionalized and subverted. However the police force, the government and popular press were all guilty of racism. This can be seen in the arresting of black men in Liverpool and Cardiff, The initial arrest of black men, soon followed by the dropping of charges before trial, the finding not-guilty verdicts and convictions for lesser offences. This suggests that many of the arrests made in 1919 were because of the color of the mens skin and not because of their actions. 12 The government showed racist actions by the solution of repatrinisation and deportation. This shows a lack of compassion and one would say racist mentality towards those that were originally employed to help with the war effort. The popular presss biass were shown through their racist headlines and the focus on crimes committed by black people rather than those white people who started the riots. Therefore Britain as a whole appeared to identify with the ideas expressed by the seafarers, and this popular moral support would have probably encouraged the riotous behavior. The idea that the British people were gripped by the riots is an easy thing to believe and this is also an important element to the rioting. The psychological theory of crowd behaviorism is believed by many to explain football hooliganism, but it can also be applied to the race riots of 1919. There is a group identify felt by a riotous mob, a feeling of belonging and union which would make some have the courage to do things that they would never do on their own. There is also the element of the invisible man effect. This states that when a member of a group, individuals feel that they are not recognizable and they are therefore more inclined to act violently. It is possible, looking at Liverpool that the mob felt a group identity and so were willing to act violently. Finally it is important to question why ethnic and racial minorities were the victims in riots. Racial minorities were used as scapegoats for political problems and the governments inability to cope with the extra citizens after the war. The seafarers were also jealous of the minorities and threatened by them; when the shortage evaporated, post war economic crisis, colored semen were seen as being in direct competition and became objects of hostility. 13 Xenophobia, imperialism, jingoism influenced popular opinion; The effect of the colonial experience in the growth of racism had a dual impact racial theories were used to legitimize relationships of dominance and disability within the empire. On the other hand the very achievement of military superiority and administrative control over the colonized peoples fed back to the metropolis in the form of stereotypes mythologies a nd ideologies which confirmed the supposed superiority of the Anglo-Saxon race. 14 This point is highlighted by the participation of young boys in the riots, they possibly partly opportunistic, but undoubtedly the influence of older working friends and parents would be immeasurable and influenced racism in the next generation. The idea that society was fundamentally racist holds more weight when the beginning of the riot is observed. Jenkinson comments that; For two to three weeks before the wide scale violence of Liverpools racial riots in June 1919, blacks had been the object of attacks by whites police raided an illegal black gambling house. 15 She goes on to describe a disturbance between blacks and Scandinavians which resulted in the death of a black man, Charles Wotton. Jenkinson stresses that, while the initial fracas involved less than two dozen blacks and Scandinavians, very soon the native population became involved16, which suggests those racist feelings were looking for an outlet, which they found. There were many causes for the riots in 1919, they were much more than simply racially inspired17. Jenkinson argues that it would be wrong to pin the causes on white fear and prejudice, it was in fact much more than that covering a number of social and economic issues. The war effected the way people thought and they were more willing to use force, which became crucial when the riots began. Unemployment, lack of housing and the governments false promises of money and homes fit for heroes just frustrated and angered the British population, who then turned their attentions on to the minority groups who they perceived to be benefiting at the expense of themselves. The previous rioting had an effect and made the riots more inevitable. Britain undoubtedly became gripped by the riots and many would have joined in because it was the popular thin at the time. The workers not having a way to express their anger would have also contributed to the frustration that heightened the tensions in 1919. The issue of inter racial sex was perceived to be a main causation however that notion has now being questioned and it is thought that, racism in Britain is deeply rooted in the mode of domination cemented by the imperial heritage. 18. Even thought the race riots were caused by factors other than racism, ultimately it turned in to a racist witch-hunt which cumulated in deportation of many valuable members of British society, all in the name of British Imperialism.

Adapting Traditional Police Organizational Structu

Adapting Traditional Police Organizational Structu Adapting Traditional Police Organizational Structure to Accommodate Community Oriented Policing The changing face of society is forcing many police organizations to make many changes in the way they run, organize and structure their departments. As public expectations of police change from crime fighters to public safety problem solvers, police administrators must modify their organizational structure in order to meet broader mission statements and carry out new tasks. This structural modification is not simply a matter of changes boxes on organizational charts.To study police organization, it is necessary to first study the way in which law enforcement agencies are organized. An organizational pattern must be looked upon as a structure of authority headed by an executive possessing formal power to fulfill the department?s mission and to delegate portions of his power to his subordinates. An organization is a formal structure to facilitate tasks. When we consider the formal structure of an organization, we typically focus on two areas.English: THe Avondale community policing centre in...The first, is the formal relationship and duties of personnel in the organization, which include the organizational chart and job descriptions. The other area is the set of formal rules, policies, or procedures, and controls that serve to guide behavior of organizational members within the framework of the formal relationships and duties (Tansik Elliot, 1981).The challenge for professional police managers is to devise an integrated model of organization that takes into account both traditional organization theory and more contemporary organization theories (Trojanowicz Bucqueroux, 1990). This paper looks at this challenge as police organizations make the transition from traditional to community policing strategies.Traditional Organizational Theory Fundamentally, classical or traditional organization theory seeks to control from the top down ( Maris, 1997). In Weber?s bureaucra tic model, the organization of officers follows the principle of hierarchy, each member is specified with...

The End Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The End - Essay Example chine aided life support and live for even longer, and one a more positive note, the very machines have aided the discoveries that have more than made life comfortable. More specifically, the ethics in the use of machines to prolong life seems to be odds with the moral dynamics of nature itself; should nature be allowed to take its own course with regards to suffering individuals on their death bed? Is euthanasia equal to natural death in view of immense circumstantial suffering? And what is the place of the physician with regards to a patient’s life? Proponents of euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide are in agreement that terminally ill individuals should have the right to choose to end their lives whichever way they want it done (Griffith, 2014). In the mix is the constitutional legality of such a desire, with those championing the foregoing course maintaining that like the constitutional safeguards that guarantees the basic human rights, the termination of life-saving medical treatment or refusal thereof is the prerogative of the individual. On the other end, doctors indeed have a moral duty to keep their patients alive no matter the condition[s] involved. More critically, the legalization of euthanasia may well create the incentives for certain scrupulous insurance dealers to terminate numerous lives in exchange of huge bucks in their pockets. Though actively advocated for in almost every country the world over, euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide is only permissible in a few countries. As to whether the very right discussed herein should be a right to all, Derek Humphrey (2009) argues that the degree to which pain and psychological distress can be tolerated is different for every individual, and that it is only the individual/patient/sufferer who can make perfect judgment on he/she feels within his/her system. Indeed as it is, individuals’ systems are not sharable, and only it is the individual who knows exactly what they feel at any given

Why is workplace bullying an important issue in managing people at Essay

Why is workplace bullying an important issue in managing people at work - Essay Example Other that interfering with the physical well being of a person, bullying also inflicts psychological injury leading to deterioration of the victim’s helath. Despite that fact that a victim of bullying can legally claim for compensation, there is no specific compensation-value for psychological injury and the management should view bullying as a serious offence of potential threat to the organizational returns (Quigg, 2011). Several societies globally have raised interest concerning workplace bullying with communities such as government bodies and labor unions tying to seek for the best possible alternatives to eliminate such a vice. Most of the scholarly articles classify that majority of employees have directly experienced workplace bullying while a good number have also observed such happenings in their work institutions (Quigg, 2011). Workplace bullying is of critical concerns when it comes to managing people at work because it subjects an organizations to produces almost nothing or generate productivity far much less below their required capacity thus hurting the organization productivity and leading to a serious loss. Oade & Palgrave (2009), clarifies that it is critical for the management to embrace bullying and harassment tolerance within an organization since they pose serious threats to the production returns. Besides, workplace bullying interferes with the ability of employees from effective and efficient performance inline of their duties. Any slightest negativity as a result of bullying is perceived to be of potential financial loss to both the organization and to the employees themselves. The varying nature of workplace bullying shows that employees are exposed to varied number of symptoms. At some instances, employees experience cannot be associated with bullying. However, some of the common characteristics of bullying in an organization are: Oade & Palgrave (2009), explains that, when bullying is allowed to prevail

What effects does parental involvement have on low income families or Annotated Bibliography

What effects does parental involvement have on low income families or Does parental involement have an effect on educational achievement - Annotated Bibliography Example including economic demographics, genetic predispositions, overall intelligence, and social factors, like parental involvement. The latter is a fascinating element. A parent’s active involvement in their children’s schooling can have a profound positive impact. There is however, a balance that needs to be achieved; after all too much parental involvement can be detrimental, depending on how that involvement is applied. The articles reviewed for this discussion allow for a thorough and balanced perspective on the topic. These sources, as a whole, were not particularly difficult to obtain. Google search provided a number of online accessible journal sources, simply, by applying the keywords, â€Å"parental involvement and student achievement.† Combined together these sources give a broader area of research and contributes to understanding of the relevant facts and allow for an unbiased viewpoint to answer the applicable questions of this issue. This article intended to determine how relevant parental involvement, or lack of, truly has on elementary school age children in the 1st, 3rd and 5th grades. The authors propose that, although, the immense amount of research has shown that parental involvement is imperative, hugely impactful, and should be encouraged, most research cannot say with absolutely certainty that involvement effects overall academic achievement.(El Nokali, Bachman & Votruba-Drzal, 2010) There is a definite correlation between less â€Å"bad† classroom behavior due to parental involvement and can aid in social development, but not directly on academic achievement. This article is a very interesting source. It is useful in that it approaches the correlation between parental involvement and academic achievement with a skeptical eye. Parental involvement is important and should be recommended, but it may not be a guarantor that it will ensure a

Blood Alcohol Content Essay Example for Free

Blood Alcohol Content Essay The thought of alcohol being involved in fatal crashes brings about an emotional response. Recently, there has been a movement based on emotion rather than logic to change a certain drinking and driving law. This involves lowering the Blood Alcohol Content (BAC) from 0. 10% to 0. 08% nationwide. However, this attention is misdirected. By looking at my personal experiences, statistics, and current laws, it is clear that there is no need for lowering the BAC. First off, I do not drink. Yet, I’ve had many experiences relating to drinking and driving through my friends. One thing I’ve noticed is that it is extremely hard for people to tell if they are legally drunk or not. Furthermore, I have never heard any of my friends say that they feel that they should drive home because they have only a . 09% BAC. The law has very little effect on how many drinks a person decides to consume. Therefore, lowering the legal drunk limit will not result in people acting more responsible. Supporters of lowering the BAC like Judith Lee Stone in her essay â€Å"YES! † think they are targeting the problem of drunken driving, but the real problem lies within the higher BACs. Ninety three percent of fatal accidents are 0. 10% BAC and above, and half of those ninety three percent have a BAC of 0. 20% and above. The average BAC for fatal accidents is at actually at 0. 17%. This seems like a more logical target for new laws then 0. 08%. Furthermore, Stone asks â€Å"Who would want their children in a car driven by someone who has consumed three, four, or even more beers in an hour† (Stone 46)? I couldn’t agree more. However, this common argument from the pro-0. 08% side is more like a parent responsibility question. They use this to manipulate our emotion by putting an innocent child in an improbable and unrelated situation. She also goes on to state, â€Å"A study at Boston University found that 500 to 600 fewer highway deaths would occur annually if all states adopted 0. 08%† (Stone 47). On the other hand, a similar study at University of North Carolina shows no significant change after their adoption of 0. 08%. Which study is correct? Most likely, both have some truthfulness. It could be either way depending on the state. The lowering of the Blood Alcohol Content percentage law is unnecessary and useless. Nevertheless, some states have already moved to the 0. 08%, and we hear the argument: â€Å"It makes no sense for a driver to be legally drunk in one state but not in another† (Stone 46). To that, I ask a couple questions of my own. Why can I carry a concealed gun in one state and not another? Why is it that I can drive a certain speed in one state, but a different speed in another? The response to those questions and Stone’s statement is all of the above are state laws. At this point, the federal government seems to get confused. In October 2000, congress passed a law that uses the states’ money against them. It asserts that if a state doesn’t lower its BAC percentage to 0. 08% by 2003, it will lose two percent of its highway money. States that don’t like the law will be forced to vote for it because they are desperate for highway construction money. Strings shouldn’t be attached to this money. What are lost in all of this are the current laws for drunk driving. Driving while impaired is already illegal whether the person tests 0. 04% or 0. 10%. Courts can use alcohol test of 0. 04% and higher as evidence of impairment. It’s at 0. 10% where a person is legally drunk and cannot legally operate a vehicle. Therefore, it’s not as if people who test 0. 08% are going unpunished like the other side would have you believe. In conclusion, anybody who picks out one particular aspect and says that it is not working hasn’t looked that the whole problem. The president for the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety, Brian O’ Neill, says that he’d rather see resources directed toward enforcing existing drunken driving laws. Hopefully, with more education, more awareness, and more enforcement we can successfully reduce drinking and driving fatalities. Bibliography Stone, Judith Lee. Yes!. Reading and Writing Short Arguments. Ed. William Vesterman. Mountain View, California: Mayfield Publishing Company, 2000. 46-47. Word Count: 702.

Mechanisms drug resistance to cancer chemotherapy

Mechanisms drug resistance to cancer chemotherapy Introduction Cancer is one of the major causes of death in the developed world and statistics show that one in three people will be diagnosed with cancer during their lifetime [1]. Cancers are malignant tumours and can be distinguished from normal cells by four characteristics; uncontrolled proliferation, dedifferentiation and loss of function, invasiveness, and ability to metastasise [2]. These characteristics are caused by altered gene expression, as a result of genetic mutations that inactivate tumour suppressor genes and / or activate oncogenes. Most cancer chemotherapeutic drugs affect only one characteristic aspect, which is uncontrolled proliferation [3]. In many cases the antiproloferation action is caused by damage to DNA, which initiates apoptosis and cell death [4]. As their main target is cell division, they affect all rapidly dividing cells, including normal cells. This produces general toxic effects, such as myelosuppression, alopecia, damage to gastrointestinal epithelium, sterility and severe nausea and vomiting. Besides the toxic effects of chemotherapy, another major problem is chemoresistance [5]. Resistance to chemotherapy is when the cancer cells do not respond to the drugs. It can be inherented, as a genetic mutation, or it can be acquired, as a cellular response to drug exposure. Mechanisms of resistance include: increased efflux or decreased influx of cytotoxic drugs; insufficient activation of the drug; increased inactivation of the drug; increased concentration of target enzyme; rapid repair of DNA lesions; or mutations in various genes. When patients develop resistance, multiple drugs with different pathways of entry and different cellular targets are used. However, cancer cells can become multidrug resistant, a phenomenon due to cells expressing mechanisms that cause simultaneous resistance to many different, structurally and functionally, unrelated drugs [6]. Multidrug resistance, generally, results from over expression of ATP-dependent efflux pumps [5]. These pumps have broad drug specificity and belong to a family of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters, of which P-glycoprotein (PGP) is one of the most important members. Increased drug efflux, via these transporters, lowers intracellular drug concentration, allowing cancer cells to escape the toxic effects of the drugs. PGP inhibitors are being developed to overcome multidrug resistance and two that have reached clinical trials are varapamil, a calcium channel blocker, and cyclosporin A, an immunosuppressant [7]. The remainder of this review will focus on the different chemotherapeutic agents currently being used for the treatment of cancer and their mechanism of action. Also the main mechanism of resistance to these drugs will be explored, particularly focusing on the role of P-glycoprotein and how it can be modulated to reverse drug resistance. Drugs used in cancer chemotherapy Drugs used in the treatment of cancer are summarised in table 2. They are grouped into: cytotoxic drugs, which preferentially but not exclusively target rapidly dividing cancer cells; hormone therapy, which is a more specific form of treatment used for tumours derived from hormone sensitive tissues; and miscellaneous agents, which include a number of recently developed drugs such as monoclonal antibodies. Cytotoxic drugs Cytotoxic drugs can be further divided into the following; alkylating agents, which act by forming covalent bonds with DNA and impeding replication; antimetabolites, which block one or more of the metabolic pathways involved in DNA synthesis; cytotoxic antibiotics, which are of microbial origin and prevent cell division by directly acting on DNA; and plant derivertives, which affect microtubule function and hence the formation of the mitotic spindle. Alkylating agents Alkylating agents form carbonium ions, which are highly reactive and interact instantaneously with nucleophilic sites such as N7 of guanine in DNA [8]. They are bifunctional, which means they have two alkylating groups, and can cause intra- or inter-chain cross-linking between DNA strands. This prevents strand separation for DNA synthesis or transcription. They can also cause base mispairing between strands, which interferes with the progression of the replication fork [3]. These actions block DNA synthesis, causing a block at G2 phase and subsequently apoptotic cell death. Alkylating agents currently being used in chemotherapy primarily belong to the following families: nitrogen mustards (Cyclophosphamide, Chlorambucil, Melphalan, Ifosfamide, Busulfan); nitrosoureas (Carmustine, Lomustine, Fotemustine); aziridines (Thiotepa); Dacarbazine and platinum compounds (Cisplatin, Carboplatin, Oxaliplatin) [9]. Nitrogen mustards, nitrosoureas and aziridines are believed to kill tumour cells by inducing DNA inter-strand cross-links, while platinum compounds induce intra- and inter-strand cross-links, as well as DNA-protein cross-links under certain circumstances [8]. Resistance to these drugs can develop as a result of cancer cells rapidly repairing drug induced lesions [10], which will be discussed in detail later. Antimetabolites Antimetabolites interfere with the metabolic pathways involved in DNA synthesis. An example of an antimetabolite is Methotrexate, which is a folate antagonist [11]. Folates are essential for the synthesis of purine nucleotides and thymidylate, which in turn are essential for DNA synthesis and cell division. Folates are actively taken up into cells by the reduced folate carrier (RFC), where they are converted to polyglutamates. Polyglutamate folates are then reduced to tetrahydrofolate (FH4) by the enzyme dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR). Methotrexate exerts its action by being taken up into cells by the follate carrier, and like folate being converted to the polyglutamate form. It has a higher affinity for DHFR than the endogenous folate and thus inhibits the enzyme, depleting intracellular FH4, and therefore hindering DNA synthesis. Another example of an antimetabolite is Fluorouracil, which is a pyrimidine analogue [12]. It interferes with DTMP synthesis by forming a ternary complex with thymidylate synthetase (TS); the enzyme that produces DTMP. DTMP is required for the synthesis of DNA and purines, so the irreversible inhibition of the enzyme by fluorouracil results in is inhibition of DNA but not RNA or protein synthesis. Fludarabine is a purine analogue, which is another group of antimetabolites [13]. It is metabolised to its triphosphate form, which inhibits DNA polymerase. As well as the general side effects associated with chemotherapy, patients may develop resistance to antimetabolites; due to a decreased amount of drug uptake [14] or altered concentration of target enzymes [15], which will be discussed later. Cytotoxic antibiotics Cytotoxic antibiotics, such as the anthracyclines (Doxorubicin, Idarubicin, Daunorubicin, Epirubicin, Aclarubicin, Mitoxantrone) bind to DNA and inhibit both DNA and RNA synthesis [16]. Their main cytotoxic action is mediated through an inhibitory effect on topoisomerase II, the activity of which is markedly increased in proliferating cells. During DNA replication, reversible swivelling needs to take place around the replication fork in order to prevent the daughter DNA molecule becoming inextricably entangled during mitotic segregation [17]. The swivel is produced by topoisomerase II, which nicks both DNA strands and subsequently reseals the breaks. Doxorubicin intercalates in the DNA, and its effect is in essence, to stabilise the DNA-topoisomerase II complex after the strands have been nicked, thus halting the process at this point [18]. Dactinomycin is also a cytotoxic antibiotic, which intercalates in the minor groove of DNA, interfering with the movement of RNA polymerase along the gene and thus preventing transcription [19]. Bleomycins are a group of metal-chelating glycopeptide antibiotics that degrade preformed DNA, causing chain fragmentation and release of free bases [20]. This action is thought to involve chelation of ferrous iron and interaction with oxygen, resulting in the oxidation of iron and generation of superoxide and/or hydroxyl radicals. They are most effective in the G2 phase of the cell cycle and mitosis, but are also active against non-dividing cells, that is cells in the G0 phase. This class of drugs cause resistance by altered activity of topoisomerase II, aswell as reduced uptake of the drugs [21]. Plant derivatives One sub group of plant derivatives is the vinca alkaloids, which includes Vincristine, Vinblastine, Vindesine and Vinorelbine [22]. They bind to tubulin and inhibit its polymerisation into microtubules. This prevents spindle formation in dividing cells, which causes arrest at metaphase. They also inhibit other cellular activities that involve microtubules, such as leucocyte phagocytosis, chemotaxis and axonal transport in neurons. They are relatively non-toxic in comparison to the previously mentioned cytotoxic drugs. Another group of plant derivatives is the taxanes, which include Paclitaxel and Docetaxel [23]. They act on microtubules by stabilising them, in effect freezing them in the polymerised state, which achieves a similar effect to that of the vinca alkaloids. Campothecins is another group of plant derivatives and include Irinotecan and Topotecan [24]. They bind to and inhibit topoisomerase I; high levels of which occur throughout the cell cycle. Hormone therapy Tumours derived from hormone sensitive tissues may be hormone dependent [25]. This is due to the presence of steroid receptors in the malignant cells. Their growth can be inhibited by agents with apposing actions, hormone antagonists or drugs that inhibit the endogenous hormone synthesis. The most important group of drugs used to treat cancer are the steroids, namely the glucocorticoids (Prednisolone and Dexamethasone), oestrogens (Diethylstilbestrol and Ethinyloestradiol) and gonadotrophin-releasing hormone analogues (Octreotide and Lanreotide), as well as agents that antagonise hormone action (Tamoxifen, Toremifene and Fulvestrant). Such drugs rarely act as a cure but do mitigate the symptoms of the cancer and thus play an important part in the clinical management of sex-hormone-dependant tumours. Miscellaneous agents Crisantaspase Crisantaspase is a preparation of the enzyme asparaginase and therefore, like asparaginase, can break down asparagine to aspartic acid and ammonia [26]. It is active against tumour cells, such as those of acute lymphoblastic leukaemia, which have lost the capacity to synthesise asparagine and therefore require an exogenous source. As most normal body cells are able to synthesise asparagine, the drug has a fairly selective action and very little suppressive effect on the bone marrow, the mucosa of the gastrointestinal tract or hair follicles. Monoclonal Antibodies Antibodies are immunoglobulins that react with defined target proteins expressed on cancer cells. This activates the hosts immune response, which kills cancer cells by complement-mediated lysis or by killer cells. Monoclonal antibodies can also attach to and activate growth factor receptors on cancer cells, thus inhibiting the survival pathway and promoting apoptosis. Rituximab is a monoclonal antibody that is licensed (in combination with other chemotherapeutic agents) for treatment of certain types of lymphomas [27]. It lysis B lymphocytes by binding to the calcium- channel forming CD20 protein and activating completment. It also sensitises resistant cells to other chemotherapeutic drugs. Trastuzumab (Herceptin) is a humanised murine monoclonal antibody that binds to a protein termed HER2 (the human epithelial growth factor receptor 2); a receptor with integral tyrosine kinase activity [28]. It induces the host immune response as well as inducing the cell cycle inhibitors p21 and p27. Imatinib Mesylate Imatinib is an inhibitor of signalling pathway kinases [29]. It inhibits the platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF); a receptor tyrosine kinase, and the Bcr/Abl kinase; a cytoplasmic kinase. These are considered to be unique factors in the pathogenesis of chronic myeloid leukaemias. Imatinib is licensed for the treatment of this tumour when it has proved to be resistant to other therapeutic strategies, as well as for the treatment of some gastrointestinal tumours that are not susceptible to surgery. Resistance to Anticancer Drugs As mentioned previously patients can develop resistance to many chemotherapeutic agents. This can be caused by a number of mechanisms, which are summarised in figure 1. A decrease in the amount of drug taken up by the cell Resistance can develop as a result of decreased drug uptake. This can be due to the loss of transporter function, for example RFC [30]. Decreased influx of Methotrexate in tumour cells has been widely associated with decreased RFC gene expression. Down-regulation of the transporter protein is due to alterations in the transcription and translation factors. Transcriptional factors, such as the Sp1 family, CREB (cyclic AMP-response element binding protein) and p53, regulate RFC gene expression [31]. Therefore loss of function of these transcription factors cause silencing of the RFC gene, which results in reduced protein level. Also post-translational modifications of transcription factors alter phosphorylation patterns, which abolishes Sp1 and CREB function thereby resulting in loss of RFC gene expression and subsequently resistance [32]. Mutations in the human RFC gene can also decrease drug influx. Jensen et al (1998) have reported a mutation that causes marked changes in the kinetic properties of RFC mediated transport of folates [14]. The structurally altered RFC was functionally characterized by a 9- and 31-fold increased affinity for transport of reduced folate cofactors and folic acid, respectively. This allowed the accumulation of intracellular folates, which sustained cell growth and DNA replication, allowing cancer cells to escape the cytotoxic effects of antifolate drugs. Altered concentration of target enzyme Increased expression of target enzyme is a common mechanism of acquired resistance. For example Methotrexate resistance can develop as a result of DHFR gene amplification and subsequent enzyme overexpression [15]. Gene amplification is thought to occur as a consequent of antifolate inhibitors binding to DHFR, which causes a conformational change that alters the translational autoregulatary negative feedback mechanism, wherein DHFR protein specifically interacts with its own mRNA and negatively controls translational efficiency. The drug concentration will be limited to the dose administered, which will not be able to block the additional enzyme that is synthesised, resulting in cancer cells overcoming the inhibitory effect of the drug. Insufficient activation of the drug Some drugs require metabolic activation to manifest their antitumour activity for example Cytarabine has to undergo catalytic conversion, by the action of deoxycytidine kinase, to an active form [33]. So under expression or mutation of this drug-metabolising enzyme can reduce drug efficacy and cause resistance. Another example of resistance due to insufficient activation of the drug is Mercaptopurine, which is a prodrug [34]. Mercaptopurine is activated by hypoxanthine guanine phosphoribosyl transferase (HGPRT) and mutations that reduce the activity of this enzyme will allow the cancer cells to escape the toxic effects of the drug. Increase in inactivation Resistant to Mercatopurine can also develop as a result of increased inactivation of the drug [35]. The mechanism behind this is thiopurine s-methyltransferase (TPMT), which inactivates Mercaptopurine and thereby prevents the formation of the active drug. Mutations in the TPMT gene will alter its activity and may cause resistance. Rapid repair of drug-induced lesions Patients can develop resistance as a result of cancer cells recognizing DNA lesions and rapidly initiating repair pathways [9]. This is the main cause of resistance to alkylating agents as their mechanism of action is DNA damage There are several repair pathways and include the Direct Repair (DR) pathway, Base Excision Repair (BER) pathway, Nucleotide Excision Repair (NER) pathway, Homologous Recombination (HR) pathway and Non-Homologous End Joining (NHEJ) pathway. The DR pathway is mainly mediated by the DNA repair protein: O6-alkylguanine DNA alkyltransferase (AGT) [36]. AGT transfers the alkyl adducts from the nucleotides to the cysteine residue within its active site, independently from other proteins and without causing DNA strand breaks. The BER pathway recognizes and accurately removes bases that have been damaged by alkylation [37]. A damaged base is removed by a damage-specific DNA glycosylase, leading to the formation of a potentially cytotoxic apurinic or apirimidinic site intermediate. This is then processed by an AP endonuclease (APE1), which generates a strand break that is further processed by Poly ADP-Ribose Polymerase (PARP), DNA polymerase b (Polb) and ligase III to restore the damage. The NER pathway deals with the repair of bulky DNA lesions formed by DNA-alkylating agents such as Cisplatin, which distort the DNA double helix and block DNA replication and transcription [38]. Two major mechanisms of DNA repair have been recognized in this pathway: the transcription-coupled repair, which specifically targets at and removes lesions that block the progression of RNA polymerase II, and the global genome repair, which deals with lesions in the rest of the genome. Generally, nucleotide repair is a complex multi-step process that sequentially deploys a group of proteins to reorganize the lesion, remove the damage, and support new DNA synthesis. The HR and NHEJ pathways are involved in the repair of DNA double strand breaks, commonly considered to be the most lethal of all DNA lesions. Double strand breaks are induced by chemotherapeutic agents such Bleomycin, and Etoposide. In the HR pathway, ATM (ataxia talagiectasia mutated kinase) and its related ATR proteins sense the severe DNA lesions, and are mobilized to phosphorylate a wide range of substrate proteins [39]. Also a number of regulatory proteins, including BRCA1, BRCA2 and p53, are recruited to coordinate the DNA repair. The NHEJ pathway involves the alignment of the broken ends followed by recruitment and activation of the DNA-dependent protein kinase catalytic subunit (DNA-PKcs) and DNA ligase IV to complete the ligation step [40]. Mutations Mutations in various genes can give rise to resistant target molecules, for example the p53 gene [41]. The p53 protein is an important regulator of the cell cycle and is sensitive to any DNA damage caused during replication. Following DNA damage it will normally induce G1 arrest and/or apoptosis to prevent the production of defective cells. Mutations in this gene will cause the loss of p53 function, which will allow cells with damaged DNA to continue replicating, resulting in resistance to DNA damaging drugs. Other genes, such as h-ras and bcl-2/bax, involved in the apoptotic pathway, have also been implicated in resistance [42]. Resistance due to mutations in genes will affect a wide range of anticancer drugs as all cells contain the same genetic material. It also potentially increases the proportion of surviving mutant cells, which leads to greater tumour heterogeneity. Increased expression of efflux pumps Resistance to natural hydrophobic drugs, such as vinca alkaloids and taxanes, as well as the cytotoxic antibiotics, such as anthracyclines and Dactinomycin, occurs due to the over expression of ATP-dependent efflux pumps in cancer cells [5]. These pumps belong to a family of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters, which are divided into eight distinct subfamilies, shown in table 1. Of these subfamilies PGP, also known as MDR1, has a broad drug specificity, which explains the cross-resistance to several chemically unrelated compounds. It is a multidrug efflux pump that has 12 transmembrane regions, which bind hydrophobic drug substrates that are either neutral or positively charged [6]. It also has two ATP-binding sites, as hydrolysis of two ATP molecules are needed for the transport one drug molecule [43]. Binding of substrate to the transmembrane regions stimulates the ATPase activity of PGP, causing a conformational change that releases substrate to the extracellular space. Hydrol ysis at the second ATP site is required to re-set the transporter so that it can bind substrate again, completing one catalytic cycle. Increased expression of the PGP transporter in cancer cells increases the amount of catalytic cycles that occur, which increases the amount of drug effluxed [5]. This lowers the intracellular drug concentration below a cell-killing threshold, which results in resistance. Not all multidrug-resistant cancer cells express PGP. Resistance in these cells was discovered to be linked with the expression of the multidrug-resistance-associated protein 1 (MRP1) [44]. MRP1 is similar to PGP in structure (table 1) but, unlike PGP, it recognizes neutral and negatively charged hydrophobic natural products, and transports glutathione and other conjugates of these drugs, or, in some cases, such as for Vincristine, co-transports unconjugated glutathione. Some anticancer drugs, such as Mitoxantrone, are poor substrates for PGP and MRP1. Mitoxantrone resistance is due to a more distant member of the ABC transporter family, MXR (Mitoxantrone-resistance gene) [45]. This transporter is thought to be a homodimer of two half-transporters, each containing an ATP-binding domain at the amino-terminal end of the molecule and six transmembrane segments (table 1). Resistance can also develop as a result of increased expression of ABC transporters in the apical membrane of the gastrointestinal tract [46]. ABC transporters play a key physiological role, where they extrude toxins thus forming a protective mechanism and a first line of defense. Increased expression of these transporters decreases drug uptake and therefore decrease drug bioavailability. Examples of chemotherapeutic agents that develop resistance by this mechanism include antimetabolites, such as Methotrexate and Fluorouracil, and alkylating agents, such as Cisplatin. Also water-soluble drugs that piggyback on transporters and carriers or enter by means of endocytosis can fail to accumulate as they will not be able to enter the body. Additionally, PGP actively secretes intravenously administered drugs into the gastrointestinal tract [47]. Resistance due to increased levels of PGP transporters in the gastrointestinal tract is illustrated by MDR1a/MDR1b-knockout mice, which have shown to have increased tissue concentrations of PGP substrates. Studies have also shown increased tissue absorption of PGP substrates, following oral administration, when co-administered with a PGP inhibitor. Reversal of drug resistance in cancer Ways to overcome multidrug resistance due to the over expression of ABC transporters are being researched. Some of the main approaches include developing PGP inhibitors, antibodies against the PGP transporter, antisense oligonucleotides and liposome-encapsulated drugs. Drugs that can reverse multidrug resistance, such as PGP inhibitors, could be useful interventions to improve bioavailability, by increasing oral uptake of anticancer drugs and decreasing drug excretion, thereby reducing dosing requirements [7]. Two inhibitors that are used in the laboratory and in clinical trials that attempted to reverse drug resistance are the calcium channel blocker, verapamil and, the immunosuppressant, cyclosporin A. Another method that can be used to inhibit PGP is by competitive inhibition [48]. PGP binds many different hydrophobic compounds so any drug that interacts with the substrate-binding region is likely to be a competitive inhibitor of other drugs. Thus, two drugs that are transported by PGP will compete for this transport, resulting in increased oral absorption of both, decreased excretion, and redistribution. This kind of drug interaction can be used to inhibit the multidrug transporter, when the inhibitor drug has little or no other pharmacologic e ffect. Monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) against PGP have been used to kill multidrug resistant cells [49]. MAbs are of therapeutic use as they can activate the immune response, which results in complement mediated lysis or antibody dependent cellular cytotoxicity of the cells. An example of a MAb is MRK-16, which has shown selective toxicity towards tumours that are over expressing PGP. Molecules, which are normally involved in signal transduction on T and B cells can also be targeted for antibody therapy [50]. Such molecules include CD19, which is a membrane receptor involved in signal transduction and potentiates the response of B cells to antigens. MAbs directed against CD19 can induce cell-cycle arrest due to negative growth signals that cross-link immunoglobulin M and CD19. Antisense drugs work by down regulating gene expression [51]. This occurs by sequence-specific blinding of either DNA or RNA, which inhibits transcription or translation, respectively. Different antisense-oligodeoxynucleotides have been reported to chemosensitize resistant tumour cells to anticancer drugs through down regulation of PGP expression and thus increasing the intracellular accumulation of anticancer drugs in the cancer cells. The efficiency of a synthetic oligodeoxynucleotide (ODN) in regulating gene expression in living cells depends on its thermodynamic stability, resistance toward nucleases and cellular uptake [52]. A number of studies indicate that a synthetic ODN coupled with a DNA intercalator such as acridine, naphthyl imide, psoralen or pyrene might act to increase stability. Novel drug delivery systems such as liposome-encapsulated drugs have also been developed to overcome multidrug resistance [53]. Liposome formulations contain a small fraction of polyethylene glycol (PEG)-derivatised phospholipid, which has been shown to dramatically alter the pharmacokinetic properties of certain anticancer drugs. These pharmacokinetic alterations include long elimination half-life and small volume of distribution. Another formulation developed to bypass PGP transporters is anionic liposomes, which are internalised by certain cells and are able to provide drug release in intracellular compartments. Conclusion Cancer is prevalent in the western world and much research is dedicated to produce effective chemotherapy. Current chemotherapy includes alkylating agents, antimetabolites, cytotoxic antibiotics, plant derivertives, hormone therapy and monoclonal antibodies. However the efficacy of these chemptherapeutic agents is limited to patients developing multidrug resistance. This is mainly due to the over expression of ABC transporters, particularly the PGP transporter, as they have broad drug specificity so can bind many structurally unrelated drugs [5]. Techniques to reverse multidrug resistance are being developed and include co-administration of PGP inhibitors, which prevent the binding of anticancer drugs the transporter [7], the use of antibodies, which kill cells over expressing the PGP transporter [49], antisense oligonucleotides that down regulate PGP expression [51] and liposome-encapsulated drugs, which alter the pharmacokinetic properties of anticancer drugs [53]. A better understanding of the mechanism by which ABC transporters efflux chemotherapy and further analysis, in clinical trials, of known mechanisms of multidrug resistance would increase the development of agents that reverse multidrug resistance. 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